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  • 137 GEC and news pay channels violated ad cap rule in second quarter

    137 GEC and news pay channels violated ad cap rule in second quarter

    NEW DELHI: Even as the ad cap case drags on with the government failing to take a firm stand either way, a total of 137 pay channels including 25 news and current affairs channels continued to violate the regulations for telecasting a maximum of 12 minutes of commercials per hour in the second quarter of the year.

    The report released today by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India for the period from 28 March to 2 June 2016 shows that the number of violators has remained almost the same as in the first quarter when the total was 133 between 28 December and 27 March.

    While there has been a very miniscule fall in the violators among news channels from 30 to 25, there is an increase in non-news channels from 103 as on 27 March to 112 as on 26 June.

    The average duration per hour of advertisements (commercial and self promotional) during peak hours (7pm‐10 PM) in pay news channels for the period 28 March to 26 June shows that the highest of these was by 21.95 minutes by ETV Rajasthan and the lowest was 12.01 minutes by Zee Telugu. Interestingly, the highest in the first quarter was also by ETV Rajasthan with 24.83 minutes. Times Now which had been at the bottom with 12.15 minutes in the first quarter does not even figure in the list of violators in the second quarter.

    Among pay non-news channels (general entertainment channels) for the same period, the highest was 24.54 minutes by B4U Movies (which had topped the list in the first quarter with 23.41 minutes and was also at the top in December last year) and the lowest was 12.03 minutes by Raj Digital Plus. Odisha TV’s Tarang which had been at the bottom in the first quarter increased its ad time to 12.22 minutes.

    There are at least 16 news and 30 non-news channels clocking more than 15 minutes per hour. While the number of news channels was the same in the first quarter, the number of GECs has risen from 24.

    TRAI has made it clear that “the information is based on the data submitted by the broadcasters and TRAI bears no responsibility for correctness. As per information available with TRAI, the rest of the pay news and non-news channels are carrying less than 12 minutes of average duration per hour of advertisements (commercial & self promotional) during peak hours (7PM – 10 pm).”

    Asking TRAI not to take any coercive action against any channel pending hearing of the case in the first hearing over two years earlier, the Delhi High Court had asked all channels and TRAI to keep a record of the advertising time consumed including commercials.

    The petition had been filed by the News Broadcasters Association and some channels challenging the TRAI decision to implement the directive of 12 minutes contained in the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act 1995. The Information and Broadcasting Ministry and TRAI are the respondents in the petition.

    After the Information and Broadcasting Ministry told the Court on 27 November 2015 that it was discussing the issue with broadcasters, the matter was put off several times. In the 11 February hearing, Discovery Communications moved for intervention while Home Cable sought early hearing.

    In its intervention, MSO Home Cable Network (P) Ltd said it wanted to intervene as it was directly affected by the outcome of the present petition. It wanted the NBA petition to be dismissed and added: “The Pay channel broadcasters are profiteering at the expense of subscribers and the DPOs. There is no justification for changing monthly subscription when commercial advertisements are inserted. The Standards of Quality of Service (Digital Addressable Cable TV Systems) Regulations 2012 (with Amendments thereafter) is justified to the extent they are applicable to pay channels. The pay channel broadcasters cannot charge the subscription fee while inserting commercials into the content or in the alternative, the subscribers have to be compensated for the revenue earned on the basis of their being subscribers of the channels.”

    In the petition, the news channels made the plea that most of them are free to air and therefore do not get any subscription fee from the viewers as the GEC channels do.

  • 137 GEC and news pay channels violated ad cap rule in second quarter

    137 GEC and news pay channels violated ad cap rule in second quarter

    NEW DELHI: Even as the ad cap case drags on with the government failing to take a firm stand either way, a total of 137 pay channels including 25 news and current affairs channels continued to violate the regulations for telecasting a maximum of 12 minutes of commercials per hour in the second quarter of the year.

    The report released today by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India for the period from 28 March to 2 June 2016 shows that the number of violators has remained almost the same as in the first quarter when the total was 133 between 28 December and 27 March.

    While there has been a very miniscule fall in the violators among news channels from 30 to 25, there is an increase in non-news channels from 103 as on 27 March to 112 as on 26 June.

    The average duration per hour of advertisements (commercial and self promotional) during peak hours (7pm‐10 PM) in pay news channels for the period 28 March to 26 June shows that the highest of these was by 21.95 minutes by ETV Rajasthan and the lowest was 12.01 minutes by Zee Telugu. Interestingly, the highest in the first quarter was also by ETV Rajasthan with 24.83 minutes. Times Now which had been at the bottom with 12.15 minutes in the first quarter does not even figure in the list of violators in the second quarter.

    Among pay non-news channels (general entertainment channels) for the same period, the highest was 24.54 minutes by B4U Movies (which had topped the list in the first quarter with 23.41 minutes and was also at the top in December last year) and the lowest was 12.03 minutes by Raj Digital Plus. Odisha TV’s Tarang which had been at the bottom in the first quarter increased its ad time to 12.22 minutes.

    There are at least 16 news and 30 non-news channels clocking more than 15 minutes per hour. While the number of news channels was the same in the first quarter, the number of GECs has risen from 24.

    TRAI has made it clear that “the information is based on the data submitted by the broadcasters and TRAI bears no responsibility for correctness. As per information available with TRAI, the rest of the pay news and non-news channels are carrying less than 12 minutes of average duration per hour of advertisements (commercial & self promotional) during peak hours (7PM – 10 pm).”

    Asking TRAI not to take any coercive action against any channel pending hearing of the case in the first hearing over two years earlier, the Delhi High Court had asked all channels and TRAI to keep a record of the advertising time consumed including commercials.

    The petition had been filed by the News Broadcasters Association and some channels challenging the TRAI decision to implement the directive of 12 minutes contained in the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act 1995. The Information and Broadcasting Ministry and TRAI are the respondents in the petition.

    After the Information and Broadcasting Ministry told the Court on 27 November 2015 that it was discussing the issue with broadcasters, the matter was put off several times. In the 11 February hearing, Discovery Communications moved for intervention while Home Cable sought early hearing.

    In its intervention, MSO Home Cable Network (P) Ltd said it wanted to intervene as it was directly affected by the outcome of the present petition. It wanted the NBA petition to be dismissed and added: “The Pay channel broadcasters are profiteering at the expense of subscribers and the DPOs. There is no justification for changing monthly subscription when commercial advertisements are inserted. The Standards of Quality of Service (Digital Addressable Cable TV Systems) Regulations 2012 (with Amendments thereafter) is justified to the extent they are applicable to pay channels. The pay channel broadcasters cannot charge the subscription fee while inserting commercials into the content or in the alternative, the subscribers have to be compensated for the revenue earned on the basis of their being subscribers of the channels.”

    In the petition, the news channels made the plea that most of them are free to air and therefore do not get any subscription fee from the viewers as the GEC channels do.

  • Ad cap & linked case put off to Sept; court to hear plea against stay order

    Ad cap & linked case put off to Sept; court to hear plea against stay order

    NEW DELHI: With no resolution in sight to the imbroglio relating to adcaps on television channels, the Delhi High Court has adjourned the hearing one more time, this time to September 29, 2016.

    The matter had earlier been put off on May 13, 2016 to today by chief justice G Rohini and Justice Jayant Nath as they did not have time to hear the matter in view of part-heard cases.

    When the case comes up next, court is also expected to take up an application by intervenor Home Cable Network Pvt Ltd seeking vacation of the order staying action against violating television channels.

    In the hearing on March 29, 2016, a plea was made on behalf of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (MIB) that a proposal was being contemplated to amend the relevant provision relating to limiting ads to 12 minutes an hour.

    On May 13, 2016, the court had agreed to take up at the next hearing for vacation of stay. The court had on February 11, 2016 had also agreed to take up the application by Discovery Communications to intervene on the matter.

    Earlier on November 27, 2105, the court chaired by the chief justice, had said the matter had been pending for some time and, therefore, it would hear and conclude the case in the next hearing. On that day, MIB had informed the court that it was in talks with the News Broadcasters Association (NBA) and other stakeholders on the issue of the advertising cap of 12 minutes per hour. This was the first time that the ministry had put in an appearance in the petition filed by the NBA against the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) and others.

    The case, filed by NBA and others against TRAI and the Union Government, has so far been adjourned from time to time on the plea that the government and the broadcasters are in talks on this issue.

    The court has already directed that the order that TRAI would not take any action against any channel pending the petition would continue. In an earlier hearing, the court had, at the regulator’s instance, directed that all channels keep a record of the advertisements run by them.

    The NBA had challenged the ad cap rule, contending that TRAI does not have jurisdiction to regulate commercial airtime on television channels. Apart from the NBA, the petitions have been filed by Sarthak Entertainment, Pioneer Channel Factory, E24 Glamorus, Sun TV Network, TV Vision, B4U Broadband, 9X Media, Kalaignar, Celebrities Management, Eanadu Television and Raj Television.

    Meanwhile, the separate petition filed in the High Court by Vikki Choudhry and Home Cable Network Pvt Ltd., which too will be heard on the next date in September, seeks to charge MIB with dereliction of its duties to take action against offending pay TV broadcasters for violating the terms and conditions of the licenses/permission for Uplinking and Downlinking.

    The Court had in June asked the Ministry to file its reply in four weeks. Notice was issued only to the Ministry, although the petition also listed several other broadcasting companies as respondents.

    ALSO READ

    Ad cap case put off to 1 August, court to hear plea challenging stay order

    Ad cap case adjourned till 15 July

  • Ad cap & linked case put off to Sept; court to hear plea against stay order

    Ad cap & linked case put off to Sept; court to hear plea against stay order

    NEW DELHI: With no resolution in sight to the imbroglio relating to adcaps on television channels, the Delhi High Court has adjourned the hearing one more time, this time to September 29, 2016.

    The matter had earlier been put off on May 13, 2016 to today by chief justice G Rohini and Justice Jayant Nath as they did not have time to hear the matter in view of part-heard cases.

    When the case comes up next, court is also expected to take up an application by intervenor Home Cable Network Pvt Ltd seeking vacation of the order staying action against violating television channels.

    In the hearing on March 29, 2016, a plea was made on behalf of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (MIB) that a proposal was being contemplated to amend the relevant provision relating to limiting ads to 12 minutes an hour.

    On May 13, 2016, the court had agreed to take up at the next hearing for vacation of stay. The court had on February 11, 2016 had also agreed to take up the application by Discovery Communications to intervene on the matter.

    Earlier on November 27, 2105, the court chaired by the chief justice, had said the matter had been pending for some time and, therefore, it would hear and conclude the case in the next hearing. On that day, MIB had informed the court that it was in talks with the News Broadcasters Association (NBA) and other stakeholders on the issue of the advertising cap of 12 minutes per hour. This was the first time that the ministry had put in an appearance in the petition filed by the NBA against the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) and others.

    The case, filed by NBA and others against TRAI and the Union Government, has so far been adjourned from time to time on the plea that the government and the broadcasters are in talks on this issue.

    The court has already directed that the order that TRAI would not take any action against any channel pending the petition would continue. In an earlier hearing, the court had, at the regulator’s instance, directed that all channels keep a record of the advertisements run by them.

    The NBA had challenged the ad cap rule, contending that TRAI does not have jurisdiction to regulate commercial airtime on television channels. Apart from the NBA, the petitions have been filed by Sarthak Entertainment, Pioneer Channel Factory, E24 Glamorus, Sun TV Network, TV Vision, B4U Broadband, 9X Media, Kalaignar, Celebrities Management, Eanadu Television and Raj Television.

    Meanwhile, the separate petition filed in the High Court by Vikki Choudhry and Home Cable Network Pvt Ltd., which too will be heard on the next date in September, seeks to charge MIB with dereliction of its duties to take action against offending pay TV broadcasters for violating the terms and conditions of the licenses/permission for Uplinking and Downlinking.

    The Court had in June asked the Ministry to file its reply in four weeks. Notice was issued only to the Ministry, although the petition also listed several other broadcasting companies as respondents.

    ALSO READ

    Ad cap case put off to 1 August, court to hear plea challenging stay order

    Ad cap case adjourned till 15 July

  • 133 news and non-news pay channels violated adcap rule in 1st quarter

    133 news and non-news pay channels violated adcap rule in 1st quarter

    NEW DELHI: While the adcap case continues to drag with no sign of an early hearing, a study shows that a total of 133 pay channels including 30 news and current affairs channels continue to violate the regulations for telecasting a maximum of twelve minutes of advertisements and commercials per hour.

    The report released today by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India for the period from 28 December to 27 March shows that the number of violators has come down marginally from 149 during the three months ending 27 December.

    While there has been a very miniscule increase in the violators among news channels from 28 top 30, there is a sharp fall in non-news channels from 121 to 103 as on 27 March.

    Average duration per hour of Advertisements (commercial and self promotional) during peak hours (7pm ‐ 10 PM) in Pay News Channels for the period 28 December to 27 March shows that the highest of these was 24.83 minutes by ETV Rajasthan and the lowest was 12.15 minutes by Times Now.

    Among pay non-news channels for the same period, the highest was 23.41 minutes by B4U Movies (which had topped the list in December last year as well) and the lowest was 12.04 by Odiosha TV’s Tarang.

    There are at least sixteen news and 24 non-news channels clocking more than fifteen minutes per hour.

    TRAI has made it clear that ‘the information is based on the data submitted by the broadcasters and TRAI bears no responsibility for correctness of same. As per information available with TRAI, the rest of the Pay News and non-news channels are carrying less than 12 minutes of average duration per hour of advertisements (Commercial & Self promotional) during peak hours (7PM – 10 pm)’.

    While asking TRAI not to take any coercive action against any channel pending hearing of the case in the first hearing almost two years earlier, the Delhi High Court had asked all channels and TRAI to keep a record of the advertising time consumed including commercials.

    The petition had been filed by the News Broadcasters Association and some channels challenging the TRAI decision to implement the directive of 12 minutes contained in the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act 1995. The Information and Broadcasting Ministry and TRAI are the respondents in the petition.

    After the Information and Broadcasting Ministry told the Court on 27 November that it was discussing the issue with broadcasters, the matter was put off to 11 February and then to 29 March. In the 11 February hearing, Discovery Communications moved for intervention while Home Cable sought early hearing.

    In its intervention MSO Home Cable Network (P) Ltd said it wanted to intervene as it was directly affected by the outcome of the present petition. It wanted the NBA petition to be dismissed and added: “The Pay channel broadcasters are profiteering at the expense of subscribers and the DPO’s. There is no justification for changing monthly subscription when commercial advertisements are inserted. The Standards of Quality of Service (Digital Addressable Cable TV Systems) Regulations 2012 (with Amendments thereafter) is justified to the extent they are applicable to Pay Channels. The pay channel broadcasters cannot charge the subscription fee while inserting commercials into the content or in the alternative, the subscribers have to be compensated for the revenue earned on the basis of their being subscribers of the channels.”

    Interestingly, I and B Minister Arun Jaitley had in January last year said that he was in favour of any ad cap in the print or electronic media.

    In the petition, the news channels have taken the plea that most of them are free to air and therefore do not get any subscription fee from the viewers as the GEC channels do.

  • 133 news and non-news pay channels violated adcap rule in 1st quarter

    133 news and non-news pay channels violated adcap rule in 1st quarter

    NEW DELHI: While the adcap case continues to drag with no sign of an early hearing, a study shows that a total of 133 pay channels including 30 news and current affairs channels continue to violate the regulations for telecasting a maximum of twelve minutes of advertisements and commercials per hour.

    The report released today by the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India for the period from 28 December to 27 March shows that the number of violators has come down marginally from 149 during the three months ending 27 December.

    While there has been a very miniscule increase in the violators among news channels from 28 top 30, there is a sharp fall in non-news channels from 121 to 103 as on 27 March.

    Average duration per hour of Advertisements (commercial and self promotional) during peak hours (7pm ‐ 10 PM) in Pay News Channels for the period 28 December to 27 March shows that the highest of these was 24.83 minutes by ETV Rajasthan and the lowest was 12.15 minutes by Times Now.

    Among pay non-news channels for the same period, the highest was 23.41 minutes by B4U Movies (which had topped the list in December last year as well) and the lowest was 12.04 by Odiosha TV’s Tarang.

    There are at least sixteen news and 24 non-news channels clocking more than fifteen minutes per hour.

    TRAI has made it clear that ‘the information is based on the data submitted by the broadcasters and TRAI bears no responsibility for correctness of same. As per information available with TRAI, the rest of the Pay News and non-news channels are carrying less than 12 minutes of average duration per hour of advertisements (Commercial & Self promotional) during peak hours (7PM – 10 pm)’.

    While asking TRAI not to take any coercive action against any channel pending hearing of the case in the first hearing almost two years earlier, the Delhi High Court had asked all channels and TRAI to keep a record of the advertising time consumed including commercials.

    The petition had been filed by the News Broadcasters Association and some channels challenging the TRAI decision to implement the directive of 12 minutes contained in the Cable Television Networks (Regulation) Act 1995. The Information and Broadcasting Ministry and TRAI are the respondents in the petition.

    After the Information and Broadcasting Ministry told the Court on 27 November that it was discussing the issue with broadcasters, the matter was put off to 11 February and then to 29 March. In the 11 February hearing, Discovery Communications moved for intervention while Home Cable sought early hearing.

    In its intervention MSO Home Cable Network (P) Ltd said it wanted to intervene as it was directly affected by the outcome of the present petition. It wanted the NBA petition to be dismissed and added: “The Pay channel broadcasters are profiteering at the expense of subscribers and the DPO’s. There is no justification for changing monthly subscription when commercial advertisements are inserted. The Standards of Quality of Service (Digital Addressable Cable TV Systems) Regulations 2012 (with Amendments thereafter) is justified to the extent they are applicable to Pay Channels. The pay channel broadcasters cannot charge the subscription fee while inserting commercials into the content or in the alternative, the subscribers have to be compensated for the revenue earned on the basis of their being subscribers of the channels.”

    Interestingly, I and B Minister Arun Jaitley had in January last year said that he was in favour of any ad cap in the print or electronic media.

    In the petition, the news channels have taken the plea that most of them are free to air and therefore do not get any subscription fee from the viewers as the GEC channels do.

  • Home Cable penalized for showing Media Pro continent in non-DAS areas of NCR

    Home Cable penalized for showing Media Pro continent in non-DAS areas of NCR

    NEW DELHI: The Telecom Disputes Settlement and Arbitration Tribunal (TDSAT) has imposed a penalty of Rs 25 lakh on Home Cable for violating its order of not to transmit signals Media Pro Enterprises, especially those relating to Star Sports, outside the National Capital Region (NCR) territory of Delhi.

     

    After examining certain CDs and report submitted by the Broadcasting Engineering Consultants (India) Ltd, TDSAT chairman Aftab Alam and member Kuldip Singh also said it was recalling its earlier order of 20 December, 2013 and Media Pro would be free to disconnect its signals to Home Cable in accordance with law. 

     

    The Tribunal said it was a fit case to proceed against Home Cable for violation of the undertaking given by it before the tribunal and willful failure to comply with the order, this being a case of continuing contravention of the Tribunal order. 

     

    Home Cable had initially approached TDSAT aggrieved by the disconnection order by Media Pro of 9 December, 2013 issued under clause 6.1 of the DAS Regulations alleging Home Cable was illegally and unauthorisedly carrying the channels of the respondent in an unencrypted mode in the DAS notified areas of National Capital Territory of Delhi and in areas outside the NCT of Delhi by taking the feed from the DAS notified areas, which was in violation/ non-compliance of the terms of  the MoU dated 23 October, 2012 entered between the parties.
     

     

    The Tribunal had on 20 December, 2013 directed that in case Home Cable files an undertaking before the Tribunal that it will confine its operation strictly within the DAS notified areas of NCT of Delhi and shall do the transmission/ re-transmission in digital encrypted mode, Media Pro will not discontinue the supply of its channels to Home Cable network in pursuance of the impugned Notice. It was made clear in the order that any violation of the undertaking shall make the petition liable to dismissal.

     

    It was alleged in the application by Media Pro that for the past one year or so, Home Cable had illegally been providing Media Pro’s content in brazen breach of the aforesaid undertaking. In this regard, Media Pro addressed letters in February this year to the District Collector, Gurgaon, and SSP, Gurgaon for the purpose of registration of FIRs. It was submitted on behalf of Media Pro that Home Cable was providing the content – Star Plus, Star Gold, Star Sports 4 and Star Sports 3 in Gurgaon through Sun Direct DTH boxes. The water marks clearly and conspicuously show Media Pro’s logo as well as that of Sun Direct on the screen.

     

    The BECIL report conclusively established that the system does not comply with the security provisions mandated  by the Regulations, the Tribunal said.

  • Euronews boosts its presence in India on cable

    Euronews boosts its presence in India on cable

    MUMBAI: Making rapid advances in the country, Euronews has signed four distribution agreements with leading regional cable networks covering Delhi and the suburb of Noida.

     

    The English service of Euronews is now part of the basic digital line-up of the cable operators Star Broadband, Satellite Channels, Home Cable and Neo News Network, which are received in close to 1.1 million homes.

     

    Moreover, it began its distribution in India in 2013 through agreements with international hotel chains such as Radisson, Hyatt and Crown Plaza. Over 10,500 rooms in 50 hotels around the country receive Euronews.

     

    Euronews worldwide distribution director Arnaud Verlhac said, “Asia and the Indian sub-continent are a key geographic area for Euronews’ development. The obvious growth potential of India makes the country a strategic and necessary place to do business. These recent distribution agreements are the result of three years of work by the entire team and testify to the value of our objective editorial approach and the quality of our programmes and magazines.”

     

    Euronews regional distribution manager Asia-Pacific Sabrina Mimouni added, “Launching Euronews in the Delhi area is the first visible sign of Euronews’ arrival on this market which is particularly difficult to penetrate. I am delighted by the confidence the four big cable operators have shown in us. In just a few weeks, they put Euronews in their basic line-up so that the largest number of subscribers would have access.”

     

  • 112 MSOs get 10 year licence under DAS for specified areas

    112 MSOs get 10 year licence under DAS for specified areas

    NEW DELHI: A total of 112 multi system operators (MSOs) all over the country have been granted permanent registration for 10 years to operate the digital addressable system (DAS).

     

    The MSOs had been given provisional permission earlier. The latest list is as on 22 August.

     

    Those who have got permission include IndusInd Media and Communications, Hathway, Manthan Broadband, Den Network, Home Cable, Digicable Network, Delhi Distribution Company and Asianet Satellite Communications.

     

    According to a list issued in late July, 16 MSOs had been refused permission. It also said that Kolkata based Digicable Communications had been denied permission after the break-up of the joint venture with Digicable Networks of Mumbai, which has received permission for Greater Mumbai, National Capital Territory of Delhi and Greater Kolkata.

      

    MSO sources, however, said that the approved list was in addition to the 140 whose names had been approved in March last year.

     

    The Ministry website mib.nic.in has listed the areas and the date from which the MSOs have been given permission.

  • Over 100 additional MSOs get 10 year licences, 16 fail to get clearance

    Over 100 additional MSOs get 10 year licences, 16 fail to get clearance

    NEW DELHI: A total of 104 multi-system operators (MSOs) all over the country have been granted permanent registration for 10 years to operate the digital addressable system while the licences of 16 MSOs have been cancelled.

     

    The MSOs in both the approved and the cancelled list had been given provisional permission earlier.

     

    Those who have got permission include IndusInd Media and Communications, Hathway Cable & Datacom, Manthan Broadband, Den Network, Home Cable, Digicable Network, Delhi Distribution Company and Asianet Satellite Communications.

     

    Kolkata based MSO Digicable Communications has been denied permission after the break-up of the joint venture with Mumbai based Digicable Networks, which has received permission for Greater Mumbai, National Capital Territory of Delhi and Greater Kolkata.

     

    Digicable Network India managing director & CEO Jagjit Singh Kohli said that they would ask for a stay on MIB’s decision to cancel the licence in the court. 

     

    Other cancelled permissions include Skynet Digital Services, Jai Maa Vaishno Entertainment, Intermedia Cable Communications, Supersonic Networks and Godfather Communications.

       

    Industry sources said that the approved list was in addition to the 140 whose names had been approved in March last year.

     

    The Ministry website mib.nic.in has added information about the approved MSOs, listing the areas for which they have been given permission.

     

    The website also contains the reasons in brief for the denial of permission to those which have failed to get the licences. In most cases, it is due to failure to get clearance from the Home Ministry.

     

    The new list is the outcome of Open Houses held by the Ministry with various MSOs, while some have come as a result of court cases.